Who Promoted the Calendar in Ancient Rome?
Rome is an ancient and powerful empire, and its people were quite advanced in their technological and social development. Although Rome has fallen, its legacy in the form of the Roman calendar has endured and continues to affect how we measure our time in the modern world. But who promoted the calendar in ancient Rome itself?
The Roman calendar was initially developed by the Etruscans, an ancient civilisation that flourished in pre-Roman Italy. This was done as far back as the sixth century BC, and the calendar was designed with a year of 10 months and a lunar cycle with 354 days. This early form of the calendar set the foundation for the twelve month calendar system in use today.
In the third century BC, the Roman statesman and scholar, Lucius Mummius Achaicus, pushed for reforms to the Roman calendar. He suggested the addition of two extra months so that each year would contain 354 days and ensure sufficient time for the important religious festivals in Rome. This change was accepted by the Senate and the new, 12-month calendar was adopted by Rome.
During the following century, Julius Caesar put forth further reforms to continue Roman tradition. He wanted to overhaul the calendar, which had become inconsistent and inefficient due to the lack of intercalation. Thus, Julius Caesar had a new calendar implemented with the help of the Alexandrian astronomer, Sosigenes, who added a leap day every fourth year, influencing the modern Gregorian calendar we use today.
It was not only Rome’s political and religious leaders who advanced the calendar, but Roman scholars and thinkers as well. One such figure was Marcus Terentius Varro, who lived in the first century BC. His study of the calendar led to the development of the concept of a five-day week, and it is his model of the seven day week which is still in use today.
To ensure that the adoption of the new calendar and reforms were enforced, Roman emperors such as Augustus and Tiberius propagated the calendar from a political and religious perspective. The calendar was heavily linked to their own respective cults, with Augustus for example, adding the celebration of his birth date as a festival.
In conclusion, the Roman calendar was a result of a long and joint effort between political leaders, religious figures and scholarly minds from ancient times. No single individual can be attributed as its promoter, but we can observe the far-reaching implications of such an endeavour by looking at its lasting influence in our own calendar system.
Contribution of Etruscans
The Etruscans played a major role in the creation of the Roman calendar. The calendar was first attributed to their origin by the ancient historian, Varro, who wrote that the Etruscans created their own calendar while they ruled much of central Italy. Their calendar was introduced to Rome as far back as the six century BC and set the foundation of what is widely regarded as the first Roman calendar.
The Roman calendar closely resembled the that of the Etruscans more than its predecessors, such as the calendars developed by the Greeks and Phoenicians. It contained 10 months, with an intercalary month added to provide 354 days, which was close to the actual lunar year of 354.36 days. The Etruscan calendar was also the first to divide daylight and nighttime into two separate parts, instead of treating them as a single duration.
Furthermore, the Etruscan calendar maintained the same order of months throughout the year, something which is still reflected in the modern calendar. It began with March, which in Latin is Martius, and it is thought that this might have been inspired by the Etruscan God of war, Mars, who was worshipped in March. Similarly, the months of May, June and July are thought to have been named in honour of the Etruscan gods Ma, Uni and Ivth.
Hence, it is evident that much of the utilised calendar structure of the Roman calendar can be attributed to the Etruscan influence, and their contributions must not be overlooked when attempting to understand the development and history of the Roman calendar.
Julius Ceaser’s Impact
Julius Caesar was one of the most influential figures in Roman history, and as such his role in developing the Roman calendar cannot be understated. He was responsible for the most significant reforms to the calendar, and it is his reforms which ultimately gave us the modern calendar we use today.
In 46 BC, Caesar proposed a solar-based system which would have 365 days in a year, unlike the current lunar-based system which was losing time. He proposed this reform with the help of the Alexandrian astronomer, Sosigenes, who determined that to make a full solar cycle 365.25 days, an extra leap day must be added every fourth year. This reform made the months more consistent in length and allowed for a more organised system for festivals and events.
In 45 BC, the Julian Calendar, as it was later known, was officially implemented and started from 1 January 45 BC and provided an additional 67 days to the previous year 124 BC. This allowed for the year to start where December 44 BC would have. This reform, or Caesar’s calendar, lasted for 15 centuries and is still recognised today as the most influential calendar reform in history.
Suetonius’s Assessment
Julius Caesar’s contemporary, Suetonius, provides us with a personal account of the calendar reforms. He describes it as such, ‘He [Caesar] overhauled the calendar, which, due to its inaccuracy, so to say, was out of control and through his agency, the months were traded off, days added, and intercalations made all resulting from the announcement of an edict’.
Suetonius goes further to describe how Caesar’s reforms were aimed at allowing for a more efficient organization of festivals, anniversaries and similar events, ‘The festivals and anniversaries, which had become misaligned because of the regulations in years passed and their inaccuracy, he returned them to their original position.’
He also goes to identify Caesar’s personal ambitions through the calendar, noting that one of the main reasons behind the reforms was to provide more power to the Senate, but also to have his own birth month of July as a celebration. This reveals the possible motivations behind Caesar and puts the whole affair in a fresh perspective.
Consequences
As can be expected, Julius Caesar’s reforms had consequences and debates about the merits of his calendar still rage today. As mentioned, the introduction of the leap year resulted in a number of issues due to the fact that the earth’s orbit actually requires a leap day to be added only every four years, instead of every four. This resulted in the modern Gregorian calendar, which was implemented in 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII to remedy this issue.
Furthermore, the Julian calendar also provoked debates about the structure of the calendar. Caesar’s decision to implement a new start date came with the abolition of the Roman kingdom and the instalment of the Roman republic, hence drawing the distinction between the pre-Julian and post-Julian era. This proved controversial as it portrayed Caesar’s calendar as a more suitable timeline and muddled what is known as the traditional Roman cultural calendar.
The calendar reform was also closely tied to Roman religion, as it provided a greater degree of consistency wherever festivals and anniversaries occurred. This was very much linked to the ambitions of Roman emperors, as they established their own religious cults and used the calendar to propagate it. Their own birthdays were added as festivals, adding to the controversy the reform brought.
Conclusion
In conclusion, it is evident that the adoption of the calendar in Rome had many ramifications on the religious, political and scholarly aspects of the ancient capital. It was an important event in Roman history, and although Julius Caesar was instrumental in the reform, its introduction was the result of a long and joint effort from different Roman figures. The modern calendar is an example of the lasting legacy of ancient Rome, and its adoption in 46 BC is a milestone in the history of measuring time.
