Slavery was common in Ancient Rome, running across all levels of the stratified Roman society. This institution of servitude persisted for centuries, up until the 5th century AD. As with many such ancient phenomena, slavery in Rome has remained an issue that has been elusive in its source material. Nevertheless, there have been attempts to clarify the details of slaves’ living conditions and the various locations in which they would have resided in Roman society.
The living arrangements for slaves in Ancient Rome present a challenging research topic that has been explored—albeit fragmentarily—by many authors. Roman slaves—as with any slave class—were subject to a certain amount of inferior living standards compared to their free contemporaries, and the standard of housing was indeed very inconspicuous. Arguably the most detailed study of the Roman slave experience comes from the works of the Roman economist Marcus Terentius Varro, who wrote extensively on the history and politics of the Roman republic in his treatise De Re Rustica. According to his writings, it was quite common practice for Roman owners to rent out their houses to slaves, either in order to supplement their meager wages or to gain extra income in case of volatility in the markets. Those slaves who could not afford the monthly rent would be piled up in a single room, often the kitchen of their master, with all the equipment for their labors and the firewood, otherwise known as the caminata.
Slaves occupied some of the lower rungs of a multi-leveled urban housing market. In Rome’s congested and expensive center, slaves could live in ordinary rented lodgings, often crowded in together. For example, recently discovered inscriptions from a Roman public baths reveals slave’s names on the rent rolls, revealing slices of slaves’ everyday lives. Outside the city center, scattered remains of the dwellings of those who worked on Rome’s huge agricultural estates are still visible, suggesting the living conditions of these slaves away from the hustle and bustle of the city. Again, Varro’s account provides vivid evidence of slave ownership on large farms, where slaves were regularly provided with beds, firewood, cooking utensils and brick ovens.
It is evident that Rome’s slaves often lived in cramped and crowded conditions, both within the city center and on the larger estates. The life of a slave in Rome was characterized by instability, with no guarantees of a secure place to live or other resources. Owners would be able to move their slaves from place to place and keep an eye on the inventory. For example, records from the early second century AD reveal the transfer of slaves from one household to another, and from one master to another. In general, it is quite clear from the aforementioned evidence that the living arrangements of slaves in Ancient Rome were largely controlled by their masters, which would give us some idea of the extent of disorder and disorientation experienced by slaves.
Slavery in Ancient Rome: Regulations
The life of slavery in Ancient Rome was largely governed by regulations and laws. It is not surprising to find legislation prohibiting slaves from engaging in certain activities, due to the vulnerability of the slave population and the potential conflicts with free citizens. Roman law often restricted slave activities such as their freedom of movement and engagement in any public assembly or religious worship. Similarly, legislation imposed strict rules against abuse of slaves, helping protect their rights and freedoms albeit to a modest degree. Furthermore, it seems that a degree of social mobility existed amongst slaves in the Roman city of Ostia, where slaves could purchase their freedom repeatedly until they became powerful members of the community. However, it seems that this was the exception rather than the norm in Roman society.
In sum, even though slavery in Ancient Rome has traditionally been considered a phenomenon that is hard to trace, it appears that there is some evidence available to paint a clearer picture of how slaves in Ancient Rome lived. It is clear that slaves were often housed in cramped and crowded conditions, with little liberty in terms of their living arrangements. However, although certain regulations and laws were in place to preserve the rights and freedoms of slaves, it appears that this did not always improve the situation for slaves in Ancient Rome. Nonetheless, the scant attention given to slaves in Ancient Rome indicates the significant pressure and despair that these people encountered in their everyday lives.
Slave Life Expectancy in Ancient Rome
The life of a slave in Ancient Rome was often very brief due to the stress and strain endured on a daily basis. It is possible to analyze the life expectancy of slaves in Ancient Rome by looking into various pieces of literature from the time. Ancient writers such as Pliny the Elder and the biographer Suetonius have noted the short lives of slaves, as well as that of their children, and how they were cut short as a result of their abusive and degrading treatments.
For example, Pliny the Elder has noted in his Natural History that “slaves fell victim to illnesses, famine, and violent punishments.” He further suggests that the average age at which a slave would die was no more than 30 years old. Suetonius mentions in his biography of Emperor Julius Caesar how the premature death of his slave-servant “was so shocking that Caesar was forced to seek revenge in order to avenge the premature death.” This indicates that in all likelihood, the life expectancy of slaves in Ancient Rome was shorter than that of their free contemporaries.
The precariousness of slaves in Ancient Rome, combined with the limited protections afforded to them by the legal system, undoubtedly resulted in a shortened lifespan for many of its slave population. This exacerbated the problem of the high mortality rate for young slaves, leaving many without the ability to prosper and enjoy some of the experiences other members of society enjoyed. Consequently, the life expectancy of slaves in Ancient Rome was likely much lower than their free contemporaries, and the realities of their everyday lives can be observed through the writings of ancient Romans.
The Role of Slave-Owners in Ancient Rome
The role of the slave-owner in Ancient Rome cannot be discounted when considering the life of slaves. The wealth of the slave-owner and the number of slaves owned often determined the living conditions and autonomy offered to the slaves. As the literary writer Juvenal mentioned in his Satires, wealthier Roman households were often acknowledged as having more robust slaves due to the resources available to them. This was often reflected in the type of work they were given and the expectations and responsibilities they had to adhere to as part of their work.
Slave-owners in Ancient Rome also demonstrated their power over their slaves in the way they organized their slaves in the household. For example, an inscription from Ostia records that each slave-owner was in charge of the disciplining and disciplinarum regimina of the slaves. Inherent in this system was the power of the slave-owner to ensure their social and economic dominance over their slaves by setting the rules for their movements and working hours.
Overall, it appears that the role of the slave-owner in Ancient Rome was far more significant than is often acknowledged. It is clear that the degree of autonomy and protection available to slaves was largely determined by the attitudes and preferences of their owners. The degree to which a slave’s resources and liberties were preserved largely depended on the status of the slave-owner. This reality is further affirmed by the evidence that some slave-owners were willing to invest in their slaves in order to further their own material gains. By investing in our their own slave workforce, owners were able to maximize the productivity of their business and reap the material benefits of this investment.
The Impact of Ancient Roman Slavery
The implications of slavery in Ancient Rome have been felt in the modern day in multiple ways. There have been attempts to draw parallels between the experiences of modern day minorities and those of Roman slaves, as well as to shed light on the social and economic imbalance between former slave-owner households and their former slaves. In recent times, legal scholars have suggested that there is something to be learned from Rome’s laws in regards to modern civil rights initiatives that also focus on equal access to resources and opportunity.
Furthermore, the psychological impact of slavery on people of African descent has been explored in recent years, with the conclusion that Ancient Roman slavery may have had a direct impact on the psychological health of many African descendants today. For example, scholar Vincent Brown has pointed out that slavery in Ancient Rome likely influenced the idea of black subjugation and white supremacy, later perpetuated by the European Enlightenment. It is clear then that the legacy of Ancient Roman slavery continues to bear an impact on the discourse of race and inequality in the modern day.
In conclusion, the legacies of slavery in Ancient Rome are far reaching. Even though its impact on the discussion of race and equality today is hard to trace, it is clear that Roman slavery was an institution which produced its fair share of injustice and oppression. Furthermore, the influence of Ancient Roman slavery in the modern day seems to suggest that the experiences of those in servitude in Ancient Rome were more than mere footnote.
The Economics of Roman Slavery
The economics of slavery in Ancient Rome also warrants closer inspection. It appears that, aside from being a form of labor, slave-ownership was also seen as an investment. Owners were able to purchase slaves, put them to work and make a profit off them by selling their goods. As evidenced by various inscriptions, slaves were able to purchase their own freedom using some of their earnings, proving that slavery did indeed have economic benefits for both slave-owners and for those in servitude.
Evidence also suggests that slave labor was an economic boon for larger households. For example, according to the geographer Strabo, slaves were used to harvest olives and grains as well as grind flour, proving that the labor of slaves was essential for the upkeep of large estates. When taking this into consideration, it is quite evident that the economics of slavery in Ancient Rome was largely shaped by the labor of its slave population.
While it is true that the economics of Ancient Rome were largely dependent on the value of slaves, and that slave-owners were able to benefit financially from their labor, the reality of slavery in Ancient Rome was deeply troubling. Despite the economic benefits associated with slave-ownership and the monetary value of slavery, the reality of the subjugation of millions of people and the deep-rooted oppression of the Roman populace should not and must not be ignored.
The Human Cost of Ancient Roman Slavery
It is clear that the efforts to quantify and monetize the experiences of Roman slaves is an inherently ethically worrying endeavor. While historians have analyzed the economic factors at play, they have also come to terms with the human cost of Ancient Roman slavery. Ancient writers such as Polybius, Livy, and others describe the experiences of slaves in horrific detail, adding evidence to the long-held belief that slavery in Ancient Rome was an oppressive institution that breached basic human rights.
The human suffering of Ancient Roman slaves was also compounded by the prevalence of other forms of labor, such as slavery of non-Romans. Slavic slaves, for instance, were highly sought after for their manual labor, as were Phoenicians, Syrians and other non-Roman inhabitants of the city. Although the experiences of these peasants were similar in terms of the risk of being taken from their homes and forced into labor, the plight of non-Romans was arguably worse due to the fact that their status was not officially recognized by Roman law.
Therefore, even though the economics of Ancient Roman slavery is often discussed, the human cost of slavery should not be overlooked. It is clear from accounts form Ancient Roman authors that slavery was a profoundly dehumanizing experience, and one which breached basic human rights in favor of economic gain. Consequently, any consideration of the economics of Ancient Roman slavery should take into account its impact on individuals, both directly and indirectly.
