Roles of Women in Ancient Rome
The the societal roles of women in ancient Rome varied greatly depending on their social class. Research indicates that most women were limited to the domestic sphere and had little to no tangible economic value. However, scriptures provide evidence that certain classes of women played an important role in Rome’s public and political life as well. In analysis, historians have discovered that the ancient Roman society was characterized by a mix of legal rights and limitations.
Under Roman law, women were accorded far fewer rights than the men which perhaps reflects their position of secondary status in Rome. Nonetheless, Roman women were able to inherit property and had the right to manage it, which greatly distinguished them from their counterparts in other parts of the world. Roman women were also able to own a home, albeit separately from their spouses, and could make wills. However, Roman women were not considered citizens; only men received this status.
Records from the ancient city reveal that most women in ancient Rome were involved in domestic activities such as cooking, cleaning and keeping records of household accounts. Emphasis was placed on women marrying and being wives, as well as mothers, thereby fulfilling the roles of a traditional Roman woman. Women of higher social standings were also allowed to engage in business activities as well, although they were largely limited to embroidery and other such skilled crafts. Notably, women of higher social standings could run their own businesses and provided they owned the property jointly with their husband, they were allowed to disburse the money derived from running the businesses to make independent decisions.
Historians have found that there is evidence that aristocratic women in Rome did exercise power over their own property, as well as that of their families. This initiative was particularly evident during times of death when women would take charge of the finances and land holdings of their husbands. There are a few instances where women were even able to establish their own production facilities, using areas of expertise specific to them, such as dyeing and embroidery.
Women in ancient Rome were also allowed to hold religious positions; women could be priestesses in their own right. Pre-Roman religion did allow for high-ranking priestesses to be goddesses in their own right with their own temples and cults. It is worth mentioning that a few women even held offices such military tribunes and politicians, although these were arguably the exception, rather than the rule. That said, these women belonged to the highest classes of society and, due to their wealth, had access to education and training, something that was reserved exclusively for the upper classes.
The Expected Behaviour of Women in Ancient Rome
The expected behaviour and social roles of women in ancient Rome was highly orchestrated by patriarchal customs. Under the Roman family system, women were expected to be in submissive roles and were to obey their husbands and fathers. Women were expected to carry out all the necessary duties and serve their families’ needs and demands. Such demands included providing children, managing the household and being loyal spouses. Marriage laws and expectations placed the responsibility of producing children on the female and these children had to be legitimate in order to ensure the husband’s succession, social position and legal rights.
In ancient Rome, marriages were mainly arranged for propagating a family’s social standing and economic position and not for the security or love. Ironically, wives were expected to remain loyal and obedient to their husbands, even with the knowledge that he may have had multiple wives, partners and sexual connections.
Married women in ancient Rome were legally absent and they could not engage in any business deals, own properties, or make any legal contracts. Subsequently, this meant that women had to obey their Fathers and husband’s orders or they would face the consequence of harsh legal punishments. Additionally, women were not allowed to sue their husbands and hence were subject to physical abuse or even death with keen impunity.
Women in ancient Rome were penalized for trying to break out of the boundaries set for them. Women were expected to have emotions and thinking conforming to norms set by the patriarchal society, and violation to societal laws lead to punishments like banishment, fines and even death sentences.
Role of Education for Women in Ancient Rome
Historians have found that most educational opportunities for women in ancient Rome was limited, but certain women did receive some form of formal education. Although there are some examples of women went on to become great scholars & philosophers, the majority of well-educated women belonged to the higher aristocracy and had access to tutoring. Women from the upper classes could read, write and used basic mathematics. They could also engage in some scientific pursuits, such as astronomy and medicine, although Roman physicians were exclusively male.
Clubs and intellectual societies were also among the few learning opportunities available to women in ancient Rome. These were exclusive to women of the upper-class, who could afford to pay for membership. Indeed, women belonging to the elite class were particularly visible in some of the most exclusive learning houses which were frequented by the politically powerful men.
Historians have discovered that Greco-Roman medicine also encouraged physical exercise for women, but towards increasingly aesthetic ideals. While exercise and sports were encouraged for men for development of strength, such activities for women were a means to refine their beauty, elegance and manners. Various forms of dancing, including ballroom, were encouraged; and although learning to play an instrument was encouraged, it was primarily as an addition to their attractiveness towards men, rather than for its own merits.
Women’s Legal Rights in Ancient Rome
The concept of legal protection for women did not exist to a great degree in ancient Rome, especially for those from lower social classes. Women overall, did not have the same legal rights as men did and without a strong legal voice; women were often exploited for their wealth and assets.
Despite their inferior legal standing, women did have some legal rights. Notably, some of the laws in ancient Rome set by the Twelve Tables allowed for women to own and control property. This was especially true for married women who could manage and inherit their own property, as well as that of their husbands. In such a case, the woman was allowed to do this as long as the property was owned jointly.
In Rome, women saw a decline in their legal rights as the influence of Christianity increased. Due the law of coverture, women were seen as the property of the man, giving them very little legal protection. This decline in legal status meant that men were allowed to treat their wives as they wished and punishments for any form of abuse were largely lenient.
In addition, slave-women had very few if any legal rights and could be bought and sold and subjected to abuse by their owners. The same could be said for women of a lower economic status, for whom leaving an abusive situation was virtually impossible, due to a lack of economic empowerment.
Religious Rights of Women in Ancient Rome
Religious rights for women in ancient Rome were limited in comparison to those of men. Women, including upper-class women, could not hold positions within the Senate or in the highly acclaimed religious rites. Notably, women were, for the most part, excluded from priesthood and any public religious office, although some exceptions have been documented. Nonetheles, there were a few religious rights which were particularly exclusive to women and were not accessible to men.
Women were allowed to access and practice some Ancient Roman rites that men were not allowed to participate in. The most prominent of these were the Matronalia and the Bona Dea, goddess-only worship, or rites of Vesta which prohibited the attendance of men.
Rites of Vesta specially had more privileges for upper class women who could oversee the supposedly-sacred fire that was continually burning, provided there was no male intrusion. But it must be noted that even in such religious activities, Roman men were quickly able to regain control over women and start exercising their power of dominance.
Women’s Relationship with Roman Men
Relations between men and women in ancient Rome was strongly influenced by societal norms and was largely unequal. Women were expected to remain obedient to their fathers and husbands, whilst men had an air of superiority of women. This division peaked with the introduction of the concept of patria potestas, or what was known as the power of the father. This effectively transferred all legal rights over the woman’s social, personal and religious affairs to the male head of the family.
Women in Ancient Rome were expected to remain silent around men, to not attend public events and refrain from being seen in public without a male chaperone. This was strategically done in order to demonstrate the need for men. Women were often seen as inferior beings, devoid of intelligence and understanding.
This was especially true for upperclass women who often experienced a lot of judgement from men; woman gossiping among themselves was sometimes viewed as a sign of defiance, and it would be met with harsh punishments. If a woman did not adhere to the societal hierarchy, she could be condemned and accused of being morally corrupt. It is worth mentioning that during the later years of Roman rule, women slowly started to regain their legal rights and become empowered.
Conclusion
In conclusion, research and analysis of sources reveals that the societal roles of women in Ancient Rome were significantly restricted by patriarchal expectations and traditions. Most women belonged to the lower social classes and their roles were largely restricted to the domestic sphere. On the other hand, some women were able to gain access to upper classes, education, property and even some religious activities, albeit to a limited extent. Moreover, although women had some legal rights, their legal protection was rather weak. It was only during the later years of the Roman Empire that Roman women could slowly regain their rights, autonomy and empowerment.
